Moral realism
Introduction
Moral realism is a meta-ethical view that asserts the existence of objective moral facts and values that are independent of human beliefs, perceptions, or emotions. This philosophical stance posits that moral statements are propositions that can be true or false, and their truth or falsity is determined by objective features of the world. Moral realism stands in contrast to moral anti-realism, which denies the existence of objective moral facts.
Historical Background
The roots of moral realism can be traced back to ancient philosophical traditions. Plato and Aristotle are often cited as early proponents of objective moral truths. Plato's theory of the Forms included the Form of the Good, which represented an objective standard of morality. Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics posited that virtues are objective qualities that lead to human flourishing.
During the Enlightenment, moral realism was further developed by philosophers such as Immanuel Kant and David Hume. Kant's deontological ethics emphasized the role of duty and universal moral laws, while Hume's moral sentimentalism acknowledged the influence of human emotions on moral judgments but did not entirely dismiss the possibility of objective moral truths.
Key Concepts
Moral Facts
Moral facts are the cornerstone of moral realism. These are objective truths about what is morally right or wrong, good or bad. Moral realists argue that moral facts exist independently of human beliefs and can be discovered through rational inquiry or empirical investigation. For example, the statement "torturing innocent beings is wrong" is considered a moral fact by realists.
Moral Properties
Moral properties are the attributes or qualities that make actions, individuals, or states of affairs morally significant. These properties include concepts such as goodness, badness, rightness, and wrongness. Moral realists maintain that these properties are objective and can be identified through moral reasoning.
Moral Objectivity
Moral objectivity is the idea that moral truths are not contingent upon individual or cultural perspectives. This means that moral statements hold true regardless of personal opinions or societal norms. For instance, if it is objectively wrong to steal, then stealing is wrong even if a particular culture or individual believes otherwise.
Arguments for Moral Realism
Intuition and Common Sense
One argument for moral realism is based on moral intuitions and common sense. Many people have strong intuitive beliefs about certain moral issues, such as the wrongness of murder or the goodness of helping others. Moral realists argue that these intuitions reflect objective moral truths.
Moral Disagreement
The existence of widespread moral disagreement is often cited as evidence for moral realism. If there were no objective moral facts, it would be difficult to explain why people argue so passionately about moral issues. Moral realists contend that such disagreements suggest that people are trying to discover the correct moral facts.
Moral Progress
The concept of moral progress implies that societies can improve their moral standards over time. Examples include the abolition of slavery and the recognition of women's rights. Moral realists argue that such progress is best explained by the existence of objective moral truths that societies gradually discover and adopt.
Criticisms of Moral Realism
Moral Relativism
Moral relativism is a significant challenge to moral realism. Relativists argue that moral truths are not objective but are instead relative to cultural or individual perspectives. According to this view, what is considered morally right or wrong can vary between societies and individuals.
Moral Subjectivism
Moral subjectivism posits that moral judgments are based on individual preferences and emotions rather than objective facts. This perspective challenges the idea that there are universal moral truths that apply to everyone.
The Argument from Queerness
Philosopher J.L. Mackie famously argued against moral realism with his "argument from queerness." Mackie contended that if objective moral facts existed, they would be unlike any other facts in the universe, making them metaphysically "queer" or strange. This argument suggests that the existence of such facts is implausible.
Evolutionary Debunking
Some critics argue that our moral beliefs are shaped by evolutionary processes rather than objective truths. According to this view, moral beliefs evolved to promote social cooperation and reproductive success, not to reflect objective moral facts. This evolutionary perspective undermines the idea that our moral intuitions are reliable indicators of objective truths.
Varieties of Moral Realism
Robust Moral Realism
Robust moral realism asserts that moral facts are both objective and mind-independent. This means that moral truths exist independently of human beliefs, emotions, or perceptions. Robust realists argue that moral facts are part of the fabric of the universe and can be discovered through rational inquiry.
Minimal Moral Realism
Minimal moral realism, also known as moral minimalism, holds that while moral facts are objective, they may not be entirely mind-independent. This view allows for the possibility that moral truths are grounded in human nature or social practices, but still maintains that they are objective in the sense that they are not merely subjective preferences.
Constructivist Moral Realism
Constructivist moral realism posits that moral truths are constructed through rational deliberation and social practices. According to this view, moral facts are not discovered but are instead created through collective agreement and reasoning. Constructivist realists argue that this process leads to objective moral standards that are binding on all rational agents.
Prominent Figures
G.E. Moore
G.E. Moore was a prominent early 20th-century philosopher who defended a version of moral realism known as ethical non-naturalism. Moore argued that moral properties, such as goodness, are simple and unanalyzable, and cannot be reduced to natural properties. His famous "open question argument" challenged the idea that moral terms could be defined in purely naturalistic terms.
W.D. Ross
W.D. Ross was another influential moral realist who developed the theory of prima facie duties. Ross argued that there are several self-evident moral principles, such as the duty to keep promises and the duty to avoid harming others. These principles are objective and provide a framework for moral decision-making.
Derek Parfit
Derek Parfit was a contemporary philosopher who made significant contributions to moral realism. In his work "On What Matters," Parfit argued for the existence of objective moral truths and sought to reconcile different ethical theories, such as consequentialism, deontology, and contractualism. Parfit's work has been influential in contemporary debates about moral realism.
Contemporary Debates
Moral Realism vs. Moral Anti-Realism
The debate between moral realism and moral anti-realism remains a central issue in meta-ethics. Moral anti-realists, such as error theorists and non-cognitivists, deny the existence of objective moral facts. Error theorists argue that moral statements are systematically false because there are no moral facts, while non-cognitivists claim that moral statements do not express propositions that can be true or false but instead express emotions or prescriptions.
The Role of Intuition
The role of moral intuitions in supporting moral realism is a contentious issue. Some philosophers argue that our intuitions provide evidence for objective moral truths, while others contend that intuitions are unreliable and shaped by cultural and evolutionary influences. The debate over the epistemic status of moral intuitions continues to be a focal point in discussions about moral realism.
Moral Epistemology
Moral epistemology, the study of how we come to know moral truths, is a critical area of inquiry for moral realists. Realists must account for how we can have knowledge of objective moral facts. Some propose that moral knowledge is analogous to mathematical knowledge, while others suggest that it is grounded in rational intuition or empirical observation.
Implications of Moral Realism
Ethical Theory
Moral realism has significant implications for ethical theory. If objective moral facts exist, then ethical theories must aim to accurately describe these facts. This challenges ethical relativism and subjectivism, which deny the existence of universal moral truths. Moral realism supports the development of normative ethical theories that seek to identify and justify objective moral principles.
Moral Responsibility
The existence of objective moral facts also has implications for moral responsibility. If there are objective standards of right and wrong, individuals can be held accountable for their actions based on these standards. This supports the idea of moral blame and praise, as well as the justification for moral duties and obligations.
Legal and Political Philosophy
Moral realism can influence legal and political philosophy by providing a foundation for objective moral principles that underpin laws and political systems. If there are objective moral truths, then legal and political institutions should aim to reflect and promote these truths. This perspective can inform debates about human rights, justice, and the legitimacy of political authority.