PhD
Overview
A Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, Ph.D., DPhil, or Dr. phil.; Latin philosophiae doctor or doctor philosophiae) is the most common degree at the highest academic level awarded following a course of study. PhDs are awarded for programs across the whole breadth of academic fields. Because it is an earned research degree, those studying for a PhD are usually required to produce original research that expands the boundaries of knowledge, normally in the form of a thesis or dissertation, and defend their work against experts in the field. The completion of a PhD is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, or scientist in many fields. Individuals who have earned a Doctor of Philosophy degree may, in most jurisdictions, use the title Doctor (often abbreviated Dr. or Dr.) with their name, although the proper etiquette associated with this usage may also be subject to the professional ethics of their own scholarly field, culture, or society.
History
The PhD degree and similar awards spread across Europe in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The degree was introduced in France in 1808, replacing diplomas as the highest academic degree; into Russia in 1819, when the Doktor Nauk degree, roughly equivalent to a PhD, gradually started replacing the specialist diploma, roughly equivalent to the MA, as the highest academic degree; and in Italy in 1927, when PhDs gradually started replacing the Laurea as the highest academic degree.
Requirements
The specific requirements to earn a PhD degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, and time period, from entry-level research degrees to higher doctorates. A PhD candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of original academic research, which is in principle worthy of publication in a peer-reviewed context. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the PhD, such as the Doctor of Musical Arts (D.M.A.), the Doctor of Education (Ed.D.), and the Doctor of Theology (Th.D.), for example.
PhD by publication
More recently, the concept of a PhD by publication has gained currency, which, in contrast to the standard PhD by thesis, consists of a series of peer-reviewed academic papers, accompanied by a commentary, linking the papers together into a coherent whole. This is most common in the UK and is growing in popularity in other countries, particularly within the field of education.