Perry Expedition
Background and Context
The Perry Expedition, officially known as the United States Naval Expedition to Japan, was a significant diplomatic and military mission conducted by the United States in the mid-19th century. Commanded by Commodore Matthew C. Perry, the expedition aimed to establish trade relations and secure a treaty with Japan, a nation that had been largely isolated from the Western world for over two centuries under the Sakoku policy. This mission marked a pivotal moment in the history of U.S.-Japan relations and had profound implications for both nations.
Japan, during the Edo period, had maintained a policy of strict isolation, allowing only limited trade with the Dutch and Chinese at the port of Nagasaki. The arrival of Perry's fleet in 1853 was a direct challenge to this policy and set in motion a series of events that would lead to the opening of Japan to the West and the eventual modernization of the country.
Objectives of the Expedition
The primary objectives of the Perry Expedition were multifaceted. The United States sought to:
1. Establish diplomatic relations with Japan. 2. Secure a treaty that would open Japanese ports to American trade. 3. Ensure the safety and protection of American sailors shipwrecked on Japanese shores. 4. Gain coaling stations for American steamships in the Pacific.
These objectives were driven by both economic interests and strategic considerations, as the U.S. sought to expand its influence in the Pacific and secure a foothold in Asia.
Preparations and Voyage
The expedition was meticulously planned and executed. Commodore Perry was selected to lead the mission due to his extensive naval experience and diplomatic skills. The fleet comprised four ships: the USS Mississippi, USS Plymouth, USS Saratoga, and USS Susquehanna. These vessels were equipped with advanced weaponry and technology, symbolizing the industrial might of the United States.
Perry's fleet departed from Norfolk, Virginia, in November 1852, making several stops along the way, including at the Cape of Good Hope, Mauritius, and Hong Kong, before reaching the Ryukyu Islands, where Perry conducted preliminary negotiations with local authorities.
Arrival in Japan
On July 8, 1853, Perry's fleet arrived at Edo Bay (modern-day Tokyo Bay). The arrival of the "Black Ships," as they were known due to their black hulls and billowing smoke, caused a sensation in Japan. The Japanese government, led by the Tokugawa shogunate, was initially reluctant to engage with Perry, but the display of American naval power compelled them to reconsider.
Perry presented a letter from President Millard Fillmore to the Japanese authorities, requesting the opening of ports for trade and the establishment of diplomatic relations. After delivering the letter, Perry departed, promising to return the following year for a response.
Negotiations and Treaty of Kanagawa
Perry returned to Japan in February 1854 with an even larger fleet, demonstrating the seriousness of the American intentions. The negotiations took place at Yokohama, and after several weeks of discussions, the Treaty of Kanagawa was signed on March 31, 1854. The treaty included several key provisions:
1. The opening of the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to American vessels for trade and provisioning. 2. The establishment of a U.S. consulate in Shimoda. 3. The assurance of humane treatment for shipwrecked American sailors.
The Treaty of Kanagawa marked the end of Japan's isolationist policy and paved the way for further treaties with Western powers.
Impact and Legacy
The Perry Expedition had far-reaching consequences for both Japan and the United States. For Japan, the opening to the West initiated a period of rapid modernization and industrialization known as the Meiji Restoration. The exposure to Western technology and ideas led to significant social, political, and economic changes, transforming Japan into a major world power by the early 20th century.
For the United States, the successful negotiation of the Treaty of Kanagawa enhanced its prestige and influence in Asia. It also established a foundation for future diplomatic and economic relations with Japan, which would become increasingly important in the following decades.
Criticism and Controversy
While the Perry Expedition is often celebrated for its diplomatic achievements, it was not without controversy. Critics have argued that the use of military force to compel Japan to open its ports was an act of imperialism, reflecting a broader pattern of Western dominance over non-Western nations during the 19th century. The unequal nature of the treaties imposed on Japan and other Asian countries during this period has been a subject of historical debate.