Operant Conditioning
Definition and History
Operant conditioning, also known as instrumental conditioning, is a type of learning in which an individual's behavior is modified by its consequences. The behavior may change in form, frequency, or strength. The term was coined by Burrhus Frederic Skinner, a 20th-century psychologist who conducted extensive research on this form of learning. Skinner's work expanded on the earlier theories of Edward L. Thorndike, who proposed the law of effect, which stated that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are likely to be repeated, and those followed by unsatisfying outcomes are less likely to be repeated.
Principles of Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is based on a simple premise - that behavior is influenced by the consequences that follow it. There are four basic types of consequences, two of which are reinforcing (increase behavior) and two of which are punishing (decrease behavior). These are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment.
Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement involves the addition of a reinforcing stimulus following a behavior, making the behavior more likely to occur in the future. For example, if a child does their homework and is then allowed to play video games, the likelihood of the child doing their homework in the future increases.
Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement involves the removal of an aversive stimulus following a behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior in the future. For example, if a person takes an aspirin to relieve a headache, the removal of the pain reinforces the behavior of taking aspirin.
Positive Punishment
Positive punishment involves the addition of an aversive stimulus following a behavior, decreasing the likelihood of that behavior in the future. For example, if a child misbehaves and is scolded by a parent, the scolding serves to decrease the likelihood of the misbehavior in the future.
Negative Punishment
Negative punishment involves the removal of a reinforcing stimulus following a behavior, decreasing the likelihood of that behavior in the future. For example, if a teenager comes home past curfew and loses the privilege of using the car, the removal of the privilege serves to decrease the likelihood of the teenager coming home late in the future.
Applications of Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning has been applied in numerous fields, including education, animal training, and behavior therapy. In education, techniques such as token economies have been used to reinforce desired behaviors in students. In animal training, operant conditioning is often used to train animals to perform specific tasks or behaviors. In behavior therapy, operant conditioning is used to help individuals develop more adaptive behaviors.
Criticisms and Limitations
While operant conditioning has been widely used and studied, it is not without its criticisms and limitations. Some critics argue that it is a simplistic view of learning and does not take into account the complexity of human behavior. Others argue that it does not adequately account for the role of cognition in learning. Additionally, the ethical implications of using punishment, particularly in educational and therapeutic settings, have been a topic of debate.