Nuremberg Code
Introduction
The Nuremberg Code is a set of ethical guidelines for conducting research on human subjects. It was developed in response to the unethical and inhumane medical experiments conducted by Nazi doctors during World War II. The code has ten principles that emphasize the importance of informed consent, the minimization of harm and risk, and the necessity for research to have a beneficial outcome for society.
Historical Context
The Nuremberg Code was established in 1947, following the Nuremberg Trials, where several Nazi doctors were prosecuted for war crimes. These doctors had conducted horrific medical experiments on concentration camp prisoners without their consent. The trials revealed a shocking disregard for human life and dignity, prompting an international outcry and a demand for ethical standards in human experimentation.
Principles of the Nuremberg Code
The Nuremberg Code consists of ten principles, which are as follows:
- Voluntary consent is essential: The subject must have the legal capacity to give consent, should be so situated as to be able to exercise free power of choice, and should have sufficient knowledge and comprehension of the elements of the subject matter involved.
- The experiment should be such as to yield fruitful results for the good of society, unprocurable by other methods or means of study.
- The experiment should be designed and based on the results of animal experimentation and a knowledge of the natural history of the disease or other problem under study.
- The experiment should be conducted as to avoid all unnecessary physical and mental suffering and injury.
- No experiment should be conducted where there is an a priori reason to believe that death or disabling injury will occur.
- The degree of risk to be taken should never exceed that determined by the humanitarian importance of the problem to be solved by the experiment.
- Proper preparations should be made and adequate facilities provided to protect the experimental subject against even remote possibilities of injury, disability, or death.
- The experiment should be conducted only by scientifically qualified persons.
- The subject should be at liberty to bring the experiment to an end if he has reached the physical or mental state where continuation of the experiment seems to him to be impossible.
- During the course of the experiment, the scientist in charge must be prepared to terminate the experiment at any stage if he has probable cause to believe, in the exercise of the good faith, superior skill, and careful judgment required of him, that a continuation of the experiment is likely to result in injury, disability, or death to the experimental subject.
Impact and Influence
The Nuremberg Code has had a significant impact on the development of ethical guidelines for human experimentation. It influenced the creation of the Declaration of Helsinki in 1964, a statement of ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects developed by the World Medical Association. The Code also influenced the Belmont Report in 1979, which established ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research in the United States.
Criticisms and Controversies
While the Nuremberg Code has been instrumental in establishing ethical standards for human experimentation, it has also been subject to criticism. Some argue that the Code's emphasis on informed consent is too stringent and may impede important research. Others point out that the Code was developed in a specific historical context and may not be fully applicable to modern medical research.