John Rawls
Early Life and Education
John Rawls was born on February 21, 1921, in Baltimore, Maryland, USA. He was the second of five children in a prosperous and socially active family. Rawls attended the Kent School, an Episcopal preparatory school in Connecticut, where he excelled academically. He later enrolled at Princeton University, where he earned his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1943. After serving in the Pacific during World War II, Rawls returned to Princeton to complete his Ph.D. in moral philosophy, which he received in 1950.
Academic Career
Early Academic Positions
Rawls began his academic career at Princeton University as an instructor. He then moved to Cornell University, where he served as an assistant and later associate professor. During this period, Rawls published several important articles that laid the groundwork for his later work. In 1962, he joined the faculty at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) before moving to Harvard University in 1964, where he remained for the rest of his career.
Major Works
Rawls is best known for his book "A Theory of Justice," published in 1971. This work is considered one of the most important contributions to political philosophy in the 20th century. In it, Rawls introduces the concept of "justice as fairness," which includes his famous principles of justice: the Liberty Principle and the Difference Principle. The Liberty Principle asserts that each person has an equal right to the most extensive basic liberties compatible with similar liberties for others. The Difference Principle states that social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged and attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity.
Philosophical Contributions
Justice as Fairness
Rawls's theory of justice as fairness is built upon the idea of the "original position," a hypothetical scenario in which individuals choose principles of justice from behind a "veil of ignorance." This veil ensures that no one knows their place in society, their class position, or social status, thereby ensuring impartiality in the selection of principles. Rawls argues that rational individuals in the original position would choose his two principles of justice to structure society.
Political Liberalism
In his later work, "Political Liberalism" (1993), Rawls addresses some of the criticisms of "A Theory of Justice" and refines his ideas. He introduces the concept of "overlapping consensus," which suggests that a stable and just society can be achieved even when citizens hold diverse and sometimes conflicting moral, religious, and philosophical doctrines. Rawls argues that a political conception of justice can be the focus of an overlapping consensus, providing a shared basis for political cooperation.
The Law of Peoples
Rawls extends his theory of justice to the international realm in "The Law of Peoples" (1999). In this work, he outlines principles for a just international order, emphasizing the importance of respecting human rights and promoting fair terms of cooperation among peoples. Rawls distinguishes between "well-ordered" and "burdened" societies, advocating for assistance to burdened societies to help them achieve just institutions.
Influence and Criticism
Rawls's work has had a profound impact on contemporary political philosophy, influencing a wide range of fields including economics, law, and public policy. His ideas have sparked extensive debate and criticism. Some critics argue that Rawls's principles are too idealistic and not applicable to real-world politics. Others contend that his theory does not adequately address issues of race, gender, and global inequality.
Legacy
John Rawls passed away on November 24, 2002, but his work continues to be a central reference point in discussions of justice and political philosophy. His concepts of justice as fairness, the original position, and the veil of ignorance remain influential in both academic and public discourse.