First Anglo-Afghan War
Background
The First Anglo-Afghan War (1839-1842) was a significant conflict between the British East India Company and the Emirate of Afghanistan. This war is often considered one of the earliest major conflicts in the Great Game, the strategic rivalry and conflict between the British Empire and the Russian Empire for supremacy in Central Asia. The war was primarily driven by British fears of Russian expansion and influence in Afghanistan, which was seen as a potential threat to British India.
Causes
The primary cause of the First Anglo-Afghan War was the British desire to counter Russian influence in Central Asia. The British were concerned that a pro-Russian Afghanistan could pose a threat to their Indian territories. In 1837, the British became alarmed when a Persian army, supported by Russian advisers, laid siege to Herat, a key city in western Afghanistan. This event, coupled with intelligence reports of Russian envoys in Kabul, prompted the British to take preemptive action.
Prelude to War
In 1838, the British decided to intervene in Afghanistan to install a friendly ruler who would act as a buffer against Russian expansion. The British chose to support Shah Shuja Durrani, a former Afghan ruler who had been deposed and was living in exile in India. The British formed an alliance with the Sikh Empire and the Emirate of Sindh to support Shah Shuja's claim to the Afghan throne.
Invasion and Initial Success
In March 1839, a British-Indian force known as the "Army of the Indus" crossed the Bolan Pass and advanced into Afghanistan. The force, commanded by Sir John Keane, consisted of around 21,000 soldiers, including British and Indian troops. The British faced little resistance as they advanced towards Kabul. In August 1839, they captured the fortress of Ghazni, a key stronghold on the road to Kabul. The fall of Ghazni demoralized the Afghan forces, and Shah Shuja was installed as the ruler of Afghanistan in Kabul.
Occupation and Rising Tensions
Despite the initial success, the British occupation of Afghanistan soon faced significant challenges. The British underestimated the complexities of Afghan tribal politics and the deep-seated resistance to foreign occupation. Shah Shuja's rule was unpopular, and he was seen as a puppet of the British. The heavy-handed policies of the British administrators further alienated the local population.
Insurrection and British Retreat
By late 1841, widespread insurrection against the British occupation had begun. The situation deteriorated rapidly when the British envoy, Sir Alexander Burnes, was assassinated in Kabul in November 1841. The British garrison in Kabul, commanded by Major General William Elphinstone, found itself increasingly isolated and under siege. In January 1842, Elphinstone negotiated an agreement with the Afghan leaders to allow the British forces to withdraw from Kabul and return to India.
The Retreat from Kabul
The retreat from Kabul in January 1842 is one of the most infamous episodes in British military history. The British column, consisting of around 16,000 soldiers and camp followers, faced harsh winter conditions, treacherous terrain, and constant attacks from Afghan tribesmen. The retreat turned into a disastrous rout, with nearly the entire column being annihilated. Only a single survivor, Dr. William Brydon, managed to reach the British garrison at Jalalabad.
Aftermath
The catastrophic retreat from Kabul shocked the British public and government. In response, the British launched a punitive expedition to avenge the defeat and reassert their authority. In September 1842, British forces under General George Pollock recaptured Kabul and exacted retribution on the city. However, the British soon realized that maintaining a long-term occupation of Afghanistan was untenable. They decided to withdraw from Afghanistan, leaving the country to its own devices.
Legacy
The First Anglo-Afghan War had significant long-term consequences for both Afghanistan and the British Empire. The war exposed the limitations of British military power and the difficulties of imposing control over Afghanistan. It also highlighted the complexities of Afghan tribal politics and the fierce resistance to foreign intervention. The war left a lasting legacy of mistrust and hostility between Afghanistan and the British, which would resurface in subsequent conflicts.