Diffusion of Innovations
Introduction
The Diffusion of Innovations theory is a concept that seeks to explain how, why, and at what rate new ideas and technology spread. This theory was first proposed by Everett Rogers, a professor of rural sociology, in his 1962 book, "Diffusion of Innovations". Rogers argues that diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the participants in a social system.
The Concept of Diffusion
Diffusion is a process that occurs when an innovation is communicated through various channels over time among the members of a social system. It is a special type of communication, in that the messages are concerned with new ideas. The newness of the idea for the individual influences his or her reaction to it. If the idea seems new to the individual, it is an innovation.
Elements of Diffusion
There are four main elements in the diffusion of innovations. These include the innovation, communication channels, time, and the social system.
Innovation
An innovation is an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption. It may have been invented a long time ago, but if individuals perceive it as new, then it is an innovation for them.
Communication Channels
A communication channel is the means by which messages get from one individual to another. The nature of the innovation itself often affects its diffusion through a social system. For instance, some innovations require a great deal of behavior change by adopters, others are readily understood since they have a clear meaning for individuals in a social system.
Time
Time is a component of diffusion for nearly all adopters. Innovations are adopted by individuals in a social system over a period of time. There are typically five stages in the innovation-decision process: knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and confirmation.
Social System
A social system is a set of interrelated units that are engaged in joint problem-solving to accomplish a common goal. The members or units of a social system may be individuals, informal groups, organizations, and/or subsystems. The structure of the social system affects the innovativeness of an individual within that system.
Categories of Adopters
Rogers categorizes adopters into five groups, based on their propensity to adopt an innovation. These groups, in the chronological order of their adoption, are innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards.
Innovators
Innovators are the first individuals to adopt an innovation. They are willing to take risks, have social relationships outside of their local peer group, have access to financial resources, and have the ability to understand and apply complex technical knowledge.
Early Adopters
Early adopters are the second fastest category of individuals who adopt an innovation. They have the highest degree of opinion leadership among the other adopter categories, often serving as a role model for other members of the social system.
Early Majority
The early majority adopts an innovation after a varying degree of time. This time of adoption is significantly longer than the innovators and early adopters. They deliberate for some time before completely adopting a new idea.
Late Majority
The late majority adopts an innovation after the average participant. They approach an innovation with a high degree of skepticism and after the majority of society has adopted the innovation.
Laggards
Laggards are the last to adopt an innovation. They possess almost no opinion leadership, have little to no social pressure to change, and have an aversion to change-agents.
Factors Influencing the Rate of Adoption
There are several factors that influence the rate of adoption of an innovation. These include the perceived attributes of the innovation, the type of innovation-decision, communication channels, the nature of the social system, and the extent of change agents' promotion efforts.
Perceived Attributes of Innovations
Rogers proposes that there are five characteristics of innovations that influence adoption: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability.
Type of Innovation-Decision
Innovations can be adopted by individuals in a social system via three types of innovation-decision: optional, collective, or authority.
Communication Channels
The nature of the communication channels used to spread an innovation can significantly impact its adoption. Mass media channels are more effective in creating knowledge of innovations, while interpersonal channels are more effective in forming and changing attitudes toward an innovation, and thus influencing the decision to adopt or reject a new idea.
Nature of the Social System
The nature of the social system in which the innovation is diffused can significantly impact the rate of adoption. The social system can facilitate or impede the diffusion of innovations.
Change Agents' Promotion Efforts
Change agents, individuals who influence clients' innovation-decisions in a direction deemed desirable by a change agency, can accelerate the diffusion process through their efforts.
Criticisms and Use in Various Fields
The diffusion of innovations theory has been widely used in various fields of study, including marketing, public health, and education. However, it has also faced several criticisms, such as its pro-innovation bias, its emphasis on individual adopters at the expense of social systems, its assumption that later adopters are somehow "deficient", and its lack of consideration for the social and economic impacts of the adoption of an innovation.