Conversation analysis
Introduction
Conversation analysis (CA) is a method of sociolinguistic study that looks at how social order is produced in everyday talk. It is a qualitative research method that emerged from the field of sociology, particularly the work of Harold Garfinkel's ethnomethodology and Erving Goffman's work on interaction order.
History
The roots of conversation analysis can be traced back to the 1960s, with the work of sociologists Harvey Sacks, Emanuel Schegloff, and Gail Jefferson at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). They were interested in the detailed organization of talk in everyday life and began to record and transcribe various forms of conversation to study the patterns and structures within them.
Methodology
Conversation analysis involves the detailed examination of transcriptions of naturally occurring talk. The method is inductive, with analysts seeking to discover the underlying structures of conversation through the close study of instances of talk. The data for conversation analysis is typically audio or video recordings of conversations, which are then transcribed using a specialized notation system developed by Gail Jefferson.
Structures of Conversation
Conversation analysis identifies several key structures in conversation. These include turn-taking, adjacency pairs, preference organization, repair, and sequence organization.
Turn-taking
Turn-taking is a fundamental structure of conversation. It refers to the way in which speakers take turns to speak in conversation. Conversation analysts have identified a set of rules or principles that govern the allocation of turns in conversation.
Adjacency Pairs
Adjacency pairs are a basic unit of conversation. They consist of two turns produced by different speakers, which are adjacently placed and have a predictable relationship. Examples of adjacency pairs include question-answer, greeting-greeting, and offer-acceptance or refusal.
Preference Organization
Preference organization refers to the way in which certain types of responses are systematically favored over others in conversation. For example, agreement is typically preferred over disagreement, and acceptance is preferred over refusal.
Repair
Repair refers to the mechanisms by which speakers address problems in speaking, hearing, or understanding within conversation. Repairs can be self-initiated by the speaker who caused the problem, or they can be initiated by other speakers.
Sequence Organization
Sequence organization refers to the way in which turns at talk are ordered to perform actions. There are two basic types of sequences: adjacency pairs and larger sequences known as 'pre-sequences' or 'insertion sequences'.
Applications
Conversation analysis has been applied in a wide range of fields, including sociology, linguistics, psychology, communication studies, anthropology, and medicine. It has been used to study a variety of social interactions, from everyday conversations to institutional talk in settings such as courtrooms, doctor-patient consultations, and broadcast interviews.
Criticisms
Despite its widespread use, conversation analysis has been subject to several criticisms. Some critics argue that it is too focused on the micro-level of interaction and neglects larger social structures and contexts. Others question the reliability and validity of the method, particularly the use of transcription and the subjective interpretation of data.