Classical Sanskrit
Introduction
Classical Sanskrit, often referred to simply as Sanskrit, is an ancient Indo-European language that has been used in the Indian subcontinent for over three millennia. It is the liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and has a rich literary tradition encompassing a vast array of texts in various genres, including poetry, drama, philosophy, and science. Classical Sanskrit is distinguished from its predecessor, Vedic Sanskrit, by its standardized grammar and vocabulary, which were codified by the ancient grammarian Pāṇini in his seminal work, the Aṣṭādhyāyī.
Historical Development
Vedic Sanskrit
The earliest form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, which is the language of the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism. The Vedic period is generally dated to the second millennium BCE. Vedic Sanskrit exhibits significant differences in phonology, morphology, and syntax compared to Classical Sanskrit. The transition from Vedic to Classical Sanskrit involved the standardization of grammar and the elimination of certain archaic features.
Classical Period
The Classical period of Sanskrit is typically dated from around the 4th century BCE to the 10th century CE. This period saw the composition of some of the most important works in Sanskrit literature, including the epics Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa, the Purāṇas, and numerous works of Kāvya (classical poetry) and Nāṭya (drama). The grammar and vocabulary of Classical Sanskrit were largely standardized by Pāṇini, whose Aṣṭādhyāyī remains the foundational text for Sanskrit grammar.
Grammar and Phonology
Phonology
Classical Sanskrit has a rich phonological system, with 14 vowels and 33 consonants. The vowels are divided into short and long, and there are also diphthongs. The consonants are categorized into five groups based on their place of articulation: guttural, palatal, retroflex, dental, and labial. Additionally, there are semi-vowels and sibilants.
Morphology
Sanskrit is a highly inflected language, with a complex system of nominal and verbal inflections. Nouns and pronouns are declined for case, number, and gender. There are eight cases: nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, locative, and vocative. Verbs are conjugated for tense, mood, voice, number, and person. There are three voices: active, middle, and passive.
Syntax
The syntax of Classical Sanskrit is relatively free due to its inflectional nature. However, the standard word order is Subject-Object-Verb (SOV). The use of particles and enclitics also plays a significant role in the syntax of Sanskrit sentences.
Literature
Epic Poetry
The two great epics of Classical Sanskrit literature are the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. The Mahābhārata is the longest epic poem in the world, consisting of approximately 100,000 verses. It narrates the story of the Kurukshetra War and the fates of the Kauravas and the Pāṇḍavas. The Rāmāyaṇa, attributed to the sage Vālmīki, tells the story of Rāma, his wife Sītā, and his loyal companion Hanumān.
Classical Poetry
Classical Sanskrit poetry, or Kāvya, is known for its elaborate use of metaphors, similes, and other rhetorical devices. Notable poets include Kālidāsa, whose works such as Śakuntalā and Meghadūta are considered masterpieces of Sanskrit literature. Other important poets include Bhartṛhari, Bāṇa, and Bharavi.
Drama
Sanskrit drama, or Nāṭya, is another significant genre of Classical Sanskrit literature. The most famous playwright is Kālidāsa, whose play Abhijñānaśākuntalam is widely regarded as one of the greatest works of Indian literature. Other notable playwrights include Bhāsa, Śūdraka, and Viśākhadatta.
Philosophy and Science
Philosophy
Classical Sanskrit is the language of Indian philosophy, encompassing a wide range of schools and traditions. The six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, known as the Ṣaḍdarśanas, include Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā, and Vedānta. Each of these schools has a rich corpus of texts written in Classical Sanskrit.
Science
Sanskrit was also the medium for scientific and technical literature in ancient India. Important works in fields such as astronomy, mathematics, medicine, and linguistics were composed in Sanskrit. Notable examples include Āryabhaṭa's Āryabhaṭīya in mathematics and astronomy, and Suśruta's Suśruta Saṃhitā in medicine.
Influence and Legacy
Classical Sanskrit has had a profound influence on the languages and literatures of South Asia and beyond. Many modern Indian languages, such as Hindi, Bengali, and Marathi, have borrowed extensively from Sanskrit in terms of vocabulary and syntax. Sanskrit also played a crucial role in the development of Pāli, the liturgical language of Theravāda Buddhism, and Prakrit, the vernacular languages of ancient India.