1820–1821 Carbonari Revolt
Background
The Carbonari were a secret society that emerged in early 19th-century Italy, primarily in the southern regions of the Italian Peninsula. Their name, derived from the Italian word for "charcoal burners," reflects their clandestine nature, as they often used the guise of charcoal burning as a cover for their meetings. The Carbonari were driven by a desire for political reform and national unification, opposing the Austrian Empire's influence and the conservative regimes that dominated Italy after the Congress of Vienna in 1815.
The Carbonari's ideology was rooted in the principles of the Enlightenment, advocating for constitutional government, civil liberties, and the end of foreign domination. Their activities were characterized by secretive rituals and a hierarchical structure, which included various degrees of membership. The organization was influential in spreading liberal ideas and fostering a sense of Italian nationalism, which would later play a crucial role in the Risorgimento, the movement for Italian unification.
The Revolt of 1820–1821
The Carbonari Revolt of 1820–1821 was a significant uprising against the conservative monarchies in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the Kingdom of Sardinia. The revolt was part of a broader wave of revolutionary movements that swept across Europe in the wake of the Napoleonic Wars, as liberal and nationalist groups sought to challenge the established order.
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
In the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, the Carbonari played a pivotal role in the revolution that erupted in July 1820. The revolt was sparked by a combination of economic hardship, political repression, and the influence of liberal ideas. The Carbonari, along with sympathetic military officers, demanded the establishment of a constitutional government and the implementation of a liberal constitution similar to the Spanish Constitution of 1812.
The uprising gained momentum when General Guglielmo Pepe, a prominent Carbonaro, led a march on Naples with a contingent of troops. King Ferdinand I was forced to concede to the demands of the revolutionaries and agreed to implement a constitution. However, the newfound constitutional regime was short-lived. In March 1821, the Holy Alliance, comprising Austria, Russia, and Prussia, intervened to restore the old order. Austrian forces invaded the kingdom, and the constitutional government was dismantled, leading to the reestablishment of absolute monarchy.
Kingdom of Sardinia
In the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Carbonari's influence was also significant. The revolt began in March 1821, inspired by the success of the Neapolitan revolutionaries. The insurgents, led by liberal nobles and military officers, sought to establish a constitutional monarchy and reduce Austrian influence in the region. The movement was particularly strong in the region of Piedmont, where the Carbonari had a substantial presence.
King Victor Emmanuel I, facing mounting pressure from the revolutionaries, abdicated in favor of his brother, Charles Felix. However, Charles Felix refused to accept the constitutional demands and sought assistance from Austria. Austrian troops, once again acting on behalf of the Holy Alliance, intervened and suppressed the revolt by April 1821. The failure of the uprising led to a period of harsh repression, with many Carbonari members arrested or forced into exile.
Impact and Legacy
The Carbonari Revolt of 1820–1821, despite its failure, had a lasting impact on the Italian unification movement. The revolts highlighted the growing discontent with foreign domination and the desire for political reform among Italians. The Carbonari's activities helped to spread nationalist and liberal ideas, laying the groundwork for future uprisings and the eventual success of the Risorgimento.
The repression that followed the revolts forced many Carbonari members into exile, where they continued to advocate for Italian unification and liberal reforms. Their experiences and networks abroad contributed to the formation of other revolutionary groups, such as Giuseppe Mazzini's Young Italy, which played a crucial role in the later stages of the unification movement.
The Carbonari's legacy is also evident in their influence on other secret societies and revolutionary movements across Europe. Their organizational structure and clandestine methods were emulated by groups seeking political change in countries such as France and Spain.