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== Gaussian Curvature ==

Gaussian curvature is a fundamental concept in differential geometry, describing the intrinsic curvature of a surface at a given point. Unlike extrinsic curvature, which depends on how a surface is embedded in a higher-dimensional space, Gaussian curvature is an intrinsic property, meaning it is determined entirely by the distances measured on the surface itself.

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=== Definition ===

Mathematically, the Gaussian curvature \( K \) at a point on a surface is defined as the product of the principal curvatures \( k_1 \) and \( k_2 \) at that point:
\[ K = k_1 \cdot k_2 \]
The principal curvatures are the maximum and minimum curvatures of the surface at the point, measured in orthogonal directions.

=== Historical Background ===

The concept of Gaussian curvature was introduced by the German mathematician [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Carl Friedrich Gauss]] in his seminal work "Disquisitiones Generales Circa Superficies Curvas" (General Investigations of Curved Surfaces) published in 1827. Gauss's Theorema Egregium (Remarkable Theorem) states that Gaussian curvature is an intrinsic invariant, meaning it is preserved under isometric deformations of the surface.

=== Calculation ===

Gaussian curvature can be computed using several methods, depending on the representation of the surface. For a surface parameterized by \( \mathbf{r}(u,v) \), the Gaussian curvature can be expressed in terms of the first and second fundamental forms. The first fundamental form \( I \) is given by:
\[ I = E \, du^2 + 2F \, du \, dv + G \, dv^2 \]
where \( E, F, \) and \( G \) are coefficients that depend on the parameterization. The second fundamental form \( II \) is given by:
\[ II = L \, du^2 + 2M \, du \, dv + N \, dv^2 \]
where \( L, M, \) and \( N \) are coefficients related to the surface's curvature.

The Gaussian curvature \( K \) is then given by:
\[ K = \frac{LN - M^2}{EG - F^2} \]

=== Examples ===

* **Plane**: For a flat plane, both principal curvatures are zero, so the Gaussian curvature is zero.
* **Sphere**: For a sphere of radius \( R \), both principal curvatures are equal to \( \frac{1}{R} \), so the Gaussian curvature is \( \frac{1}{R^2} \).
* **Cylinder**: For a cylinder of radius \( R \), one principal curvature is zero (along the axis of the cylinder), and the other is \( \frac{1}{R} \), so the Gaussian curvature is zero.

=== Properties ===

Gaussian curvature has several important properties:
* **Intrinsic Nature**: It is an intrinsic measure, meaning it does not change if the surface is bent without stretching.
* **Significance in Topology**: The integral of Gaussian curvature over a closed surface is related to the surface's [[Euler Characteristic|Euler characteristic]] by the [[Gauss-Bonnet Theorem|Gauss-Bonnet theorem]].
* **Classification of Points**: Points on a surface can be classified based on the sign of the Gaussian curvature:
  * **Elliptic Point**: \( K > 0 \)
  * **Hyperbolic Point**: \( K < 0 \)
  * **Parabolic Point**: \( K = 0 \)

=== Applications ===

Gaussian curvature plays a crucial role in various fields:
* **General Relativity**: In [[General Relativity|general relativity]], the curvature of spacetime is described by the [[Riemann Curvature Tensor|Riemann curvature tensor]], which generalizes the concept of Gaussian curvature to higher dimensions.
* **Computer Graphics**: In [[Computer Graphics|computer graphics]], Gaussian curvature is used in surface modeling and mesh generation.
* **Geodesy**: In [[Geodesy|geodesy]], the study of Earth's shape and size, Gaussian curvature helps in understanding the Earth's surface properties.

=== See Also ===

* [[Differential Geometry|Differential Geometry]]
* [[Principal Curvature|Principal Curvature]]
* [[Theorema Egregium|Theorema Egregium]]
* [[Gauss-Bonnet Theorem|Gauss-Bonnet Theorem]]
* [[Riemann Curvature Tensor|Riemann Curvature Tensor]]

[[Category:Differential Geometry]]
[[Category:Curvature]]
[[Category:Mathematics]]