Hume
Introduction
David Hume (1711–1776) was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, known for his influential system of philosophical empiricism, skepticism, and naturalism. Hume is often grouped with John Locke and George Berkeley as a British Empiricist. His contributions to philosophy include the development of a naturalistic science of human nature, a rigorous skepticism about the limits of human understanding, and a deep exploration of the nature of causation and personal identity.
Early Life and Education
David Hume was born on April 26, 1711, in Edinburgh, Scotland. He was the second son of Joseph Home, an advocate, and Katherine Falconer. After his father's death, Hume's mother raised him and his siblings. Hume attended the University of Edinburgh at the age of 12, where he studied a wide range of subjects, including philosophy, literature, and science. Despite not completing a degree, Hume's education laid the foundation for his later work in philosophy.
Philosophical Works
A Treatise of Human Nature
Hume's most significant philosophical work, "A Treatise of Human Nature," was published in three volumes between 1739 and 1740. The Treatise is divided into three books: "Of the Understanding," "Of the Passions," and "Of Morals." In this work, Hume attempts to construct a comprehensive science of human nature based on empirical observation and analysis.
Book I: Of the Understanding
In the first book, Hume explores the nature of human cognition, emphasizing the role of impressions and ideas. He argues that all ideas are ultimately derived from sensory impressions and that the mind is limited to the data provided by experience. Hume famously challenges the notion of causation, suggesting that our belief in cause and effect is a habit of thought rather than a rational deduction.
Book II: Of the Passions
The second book of the Treatise examines human emotions and motivations. Hume argues that reason is subordinate to the passions, which drive human behavior. He distinguishes between direct and indirect passions, exploring concepts such as pride, humility, love, and hatred.
Book III: Of Morals
In the third book, Hume addresses moral philosophy, arguing that moral judgments are not derived from reason but from sentiment. He introduces the concept of the "moral sense," suggesting that moral distinctions are based on feelings of approval or disapproval.
An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
In 1748, Hume published "An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding," a more accessible version of the first book of the Treatise. This work further develops his ideas on empiricism and skepticism, including the famous "problem of induction," which questions the justification for inductive reasoning. Hume also introduces the concept of "custom" as the basis for our belief in causation.
An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals
Published in 1751, "An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals" revisits the themes of the third book of the Treatise. Hume argues that moral judgments are based on sentiments and that virtues are qualities that are useful or agreeable to oneself or others. This work is often regarded as one of the most important contributions to moral philosophy.
Hume's Influence on Philosophy
Hume's work has had a profound impact on the development of modern philosophy. His empiricism and skepticism influenced later philosophers such as Immanuel Kant, who famously stated that Hume's work "awoke me from my dogmatic slumber." Hume's ideas also laid the groundwork for the development of logical positivism and analytic philosophy in the 20th century.
Hume on Religion
Hume was a vocal critic of organized religion and religious dogma. In his posthumously published work "Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion," Hume presents a skeptical analysis of the arguments for the existence of God. He argues that the complexity and order of the universe do not necessarily imply a divine creator and that religious beliefs are often based on fear and superstition rather than reason.
Economic and Historical Contributions
In addition to his philosophical work, Hume made significant contributions to economics and history. His essays on economics, particularly "Of the Balance of Trade," influenced the development of classical economics and the ideas of Adam Smith. Hume's "History of England," published in six volumes between 1754 and 1762, was a best-seller and established him as one of the leading historians of his time.
Personal Life and Legacy
Hume never married and spent much of his life in Edinburgh, where he was a central figure in the Scottish Enlightenment. He maintained friendships with many prominent intellectuals, including Adam Smith and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Hume died on August 25, 1776, leaving behind a legacy that continues to influence philosophy, economics, and the study of history.