Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae

Introduction

Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) are a family of Gram-negative bacteria that are resistant to carbapenem antibiotics, which are often considered the last line of defense against multi-drug resistant infections. These bacteria pose a significant threat to public health due to their high levels of resistance to most available antibiotics, making infections difficult to treat and often leading to severe outcomes.

Epidemiology

CRE infections have been reported worldwide, with significant prevalence in healthcare settings such as hospitals and long-term care facilities. The incidence of CRE infections varies by region, with higher rates observed in countries with extensive use of broad-spectrum antibiotics. The spread of CRE is facilitated by the movement of patients between healthcare facilities and the transfer of resistance genes among bacterial species.

Mechanisms of Resistance

Carbapenem resistance in Enterobacteriaceae is primarily mediated through the production of carbapenemase enzymes, which hydrolyze the antibiotic, rendering it ineffective. The most common carbapenemases include KPC (Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase), NDM (New Delhi metallo-beta-lactamase), VIM (Verona integron-encoded metallo-beta-lactamase), and OXA-48 (oxacillinase-48). Additionally, resistance can arise from the combination of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs) or AmpC beta-lactamases with porin mutations that reduce antibiotic uptake.

Clinical Manifestations

CRE infections can manifest in various forms, including bloodstream infections, pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and intra-abdominal infections. These infections are associated with high morbidity and mortality rates, particularly in immunocompromised patients and those with underlying health conditions. Symptoms vary depending on the site of infection but often include fever, chills, and signs of systemic infection.

Diagnosis

The diagnosis of CRE infections involves microbiological culture and susceptibility testing. Automated systems, such as VITEK and MicroScan, are commonly used for initial identification and antimicrobial susceptibility testing. Confirmatory tests, including polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing, are employed to detect specific carbapenemase genes. Phenotypic methods, such as the modified Hodge test and Carba NP test, can also be used to identify carbapenemase production.

Treatment

The treatment of CRE infections is challenging due to limited therapeutic options. Combination therapy, often involving polymyxins (e.g., colistin), tigecycline, and aminoglycosides, is commonly used to enhance efficacy and reduce the risk of resistance development. Newer agents, such as ceftazidime-avibactam and meropenem-vaborbactam, have shown promise in treating CRE infections. However, the emergence of resistance to these agents is a growing concern.

Infection Control and Prevention

Effective infection control measures are crucial in preventing the spread of CRE in healthcare settings. These measures include strict hand hygiene, contact precautions, environmental cleaning, and antimicrobial stewardship programs. Screening and isolating colonized or infected patients, along with cohorting healthcare staff, are essential strategies to contain outbreaks. Surveillance programs and molecular typing techniques, such as pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and whole-genome sequencing (WGS), are employed to monitor and track the spread of CRE.

Public Health Implications

The emergence and spread of CRE represent a significant public health challenge. The high mortality rates associated with CRE infections, coupled with limited treatment options, underscore the need for coordinated efforts to combat antibiotic resistance. Public health initiatives focus on improving infection control practices, promoting judicious use of antibiotics, and investing in research and development of new antimicrobial agents. Global collaboration and data sharing are essential to address the threat posed by CRE.

Research and Future Directions

Ongoing research aims to better understand the mechanisms of resistance, develop novel therapeutic agents, and improve diagnostic methods for CRE. Studies are exploring the use of bacteriophages, antimicrobial peptides, and immunotherapies as potential treatment options. Additionally, efforts are being made to identify biomarkers for early detection and to develop rapid, point-of-care diagnostic tests. The development of vaccines against key Enterobacteriaceae pathogens is also an area of active investigation.

See Also

• Antimicrobial resistance
• Beta-lactamase
• Healthcare-associated infections
• Multidrug-resistant organisms
• Nosocomial infection

Microscopic image of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae bacteria.

Microscopic image of carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae bacteria.